Dynamics of foliations

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1 Introduction

Foliations of Riemannian manifolds can be considered as multidimensional dynamical systems: Riemannian structure (more precisely, Riemannian structure along the leaves) plays the role of time, the leaves play the role of orbits [Walczak2004]. The dynamics of a foliation can be described in terms of its holonomy (see Foliations#Holonomy) pseudogroup. As far as we know, the notion of a pseudogroup appeared for the first time in [Veblen&Whitehead1932] in the context of geometric objects studied in differential geometry. Pseudogroups have been brought into the foliation theory by Haefliger [Haefliger1962a]. The growth types of leaves (equivalent to the growth types of the corresponding orbits of holonomy pseudogroups) as well as the expansion growth of a foliation (or, its holonomy pseudogroup) describe some aspects of the foliation dynamics. Corresponding to the expansion growth is the notion of geometric entropy of a foliation [Ghys&Langevin&Walczak1988]. Vanishing entropy can be seen as a dynamical condition which occurs to have strong geometric and topological consequences (see Dynamics of foliations#Results on entropy) below.

2 Pseudogroups

The notion of a pseudogroup generalizes that of a group of transformations. Given a space $X$$<!-- COMMENT: To achieve a unified layout, along with using the template below, please OBSERVE the following: besides, $...$ and $$...$$, you should use two environments: - For statements like Theorem, Lemma, Definition etc., use e.g. {{beginthm|Theorem 1|(Milnor)}} ... ... ... {{endthm}}. - For references, use e.g. {{cite|Milnor1958b}}. END OF COMMENT -->{{Authors|Pawel Walczak}} {{Stub}} == Introduction == <wikitex>; Foliations of Riemannian manifolds can be considered as multidimensional dynamical systems: Riemannian structure (more precisely, Riemannian structure along the leaves) plays the role of time, the leaves play the role of orbits \cite{Walczak2004}. The dynamics of a foliation can be described in terms of its holonomy (see [[Foliations#Holonomy]]) pseudogroup. As far as we know, the notion of a pseudogroup appeared for the first time in \cite{Veblen&Whitehead1932} in the context of geometric objects studied in differential geometry. Pseudogroups have been brought into the foliation theory by Haefliger \cite{Haefliger1962a}. The growth types of leaves (equivalent to the growth types of the corresponding orbits of holonomy pseudogroups) as well as the expansion growth of a foliation (or, its holonomy pseudogroup) describe some aspects of the foliation dynamics. Corresponding to the expansion growth is the notion of geometric entropy of a foliation \cite{Ghys&Langevin&Walczak1988}. Vanishing entropy can be seen as a dynamical condition which occurs to have strong geometric and topological consequences (see [[Dynamics of foliations#Results on entropy]]) below. </wikitex> == Pseudogroups == <wikitex>; The notion of a pseudogroup generalizes that of a group of transformations. Given a space $X$, any group of transformations of $X$ consists of maps defined globally on $X$, mapping $X$ bijectively onto itself and such that the composition of any two of them as well as the inverse of any of them belongs to the group. The same holds for a pseudogroup with this difference that the maps are not defined globally but on open subsets, so the domain of the composition is usually smaller than those of the maps being composed. To make the above precise, let us take a topological space $X$ and denote by Homeo$\, (X)$ the family of all homeomorphisms between open subsets of $X$. If $g\in$ Homeo$\, (X)$, then $D_g$ is its domain and $R_g = g(D_g)$. {{beginthm|Definition}} A subfamily $\Gamma$ of Homeo$\, (X)$ is said to be a '''pseudogroup''' if it is closed under composition, inversion, restriction to open subdomains and unions. More precisely, $\Gamma$ should satisfy the following conditions: (i) $g\circ h\in\Gamma$ whenever $g$ and $h\in\Gamma$, (ii) $g^{-1}\in\Gamma$ whenever $g\in\Gamma$, (iii) $g|U\in\Gamma$ whenever $g\in\Gamma$ and $U\subset D_g$ is open, (iv) if $g\in$ Homeo$\, (X)$, $\mathcal{U}$ is an open cover of $D_g$ and $g|U\in\Gamma$ for any $U\in\mathcal{U}$, then $g\in\Gamma$. Moreover, we shall always assume that (v] id$_X\in\Gamma$ (or, equivalently, $\cup\{ D_g; g\in\Gamma\} = X$). \label{def:psgroup}{{endthm}} As examples, one may have (1) all the homeomorphisms between open sets of a topological space, (2) all the diffeomorhisms of a given class (say, $C^k$, $k = 1, 2, \ldots, \infty, \omega$, between open sets of a manifold, (3) all the restrictions to open domains of elements of a given group $G$ of homeomorphisms of a given topological space. (In the last case, we say that the pseudogroup is '''generated''' by $G$.) Any set $A$ of homeomorphisms bewteen open sets (with domains covering a space $X$) generates ma pseudogroup $\Gamma (A)$ which is the smallest pseudogroup containing $A$; precisely a homeomorphism $h:D_h\to R_h$ belongs to $\Gamma (A)$ if and only if for any point $x\in D_h$ there exist elements $h_1, \ldots, h_k\in A$, exponents $\epsilon _1, \ldots, \epsilon _k\in\{ \pm 1\}$ and a neighbourhood $V$ of $x$ such that $h = h_1^{\epsilon _1}\circ\ldots\circ h_k^{\epsilon _k}$ on $V$. If $A$ is finite, $\Gamma (A)$ is said to be '''finitely generated'''. </wikitex> ==Holonomy pesudogroups== <wikitex>; {{beginthm|Definition}} A foliated atlas $\mathcal{A}$ on a foliated manifold $(M, \mathcal{F})$ is said to be '''nice''' (also, '''nice''' is the covering of $M$ by the domains $D_\phi$ of the charts $\phi\in\mathcal{A}$) if (i) the covering $\{ D_\phi ; \phi\in\mathcal{A}\}$ is locally finite, (ii) for any $\phi\in\mathcal{A}$, $R_\phi = \phi (D_\phi )\subset\Bbb R^n$ is an open cube, (iii) if $\phi$ and $\psi\in\mathcal{A}$, and $D_\phi\cap D_\psi\ne\emptyset$, then there exists a foliated chart chart $\chi$ and such that $R_\chi$ is an open cube, $D_\chi$ contains the closure of $D_\phi\cup D_\psi$ and $\phi = \chi |D_\phi$. {{endthm}} Since manifolds are supposed to be paracompact here, they are separable and hence nice coverings are denumerable. Nice coverings on compact manifolds are finite. On arbitrary foliated manfiolds, nice coverings do exist. Given a nice covering $\mathcal{U}$ of a foliated manifold $(M, \mathcal{F})$. For any $U\in\mathcal{U}$, let $T_U$ be the space of the '''plaques''' (i.e., connected components of intersections $U\cap L$. $L$ being a leaf of $\mathcal{F}$) of $\mathcal{F}$ contained in $U$. Equip $T_U = U/(\mathcal{F}|U)$ with the quotient topology: two points of $U$ are equivalent iff they belong to the same plaque. $T_U$ is homeomorphic ($C^r$-diffeomorphic when $\mathcal{F}$ is $C^r$-differentiable and $r\ge 1$) to an open cube $Q\subset\Bbb R^q$ ($q = \text{codim}\, \mathcal{F}$) ''via'' the map $\phi''$, where $\phi = (\phi ', \phi ''):U\to\Bbb R^p\times\Bbb R^q$ is a foliated chart on $U$. The disjoint union $$T = \sqcup\{T_U; U\in\mathcal{U}\}$$ is called a '''complete transversal''' for $\mathcal{F}$. Transversality refers to the fact that, if $\mathcal{F}$ is differentiable of class $C^r$, $r > 0$, each of the spaces $T_U$ can be mapped homeomorphically onto a $C^r$-submanifold $T_U'\subset U$ transverse to $U$: if $x\in T_U'$ and $L$ is the leaf of $\mathcal{F}$ passing through $x$, then $$T_xM = T_xT_U'\oplus T_xL.$$ Completeness of $T$ means that every leaf of $\mathcal{F}$ intersects at least one of the submanifolds $T_U'$. {{beginthm|Definition}} Given a nice covering $\mathcal{U}$ of a foliated manifold $(M,\mathcal{F})$ and two sets $U$ and $V\in\mathcal{U}$ such that $U\cap V\ne\emptyset$ the '''holonomy map''' $h_{VU}: D_{VU}\to T_V$, $D_{VU}$ being the open subset of $T_U$ which consists of all the plaques $P$ of $U$ for which $P\cap V\ne\emptyset$, is defined in the following way: $$ h_{VU}(P) = P'\ \Leftrightarrow\ \text{the plaques}\ P\subset U\ \text{and}\ P'\subset V\ \text{intersect}. $$ All the maps $h_{UV}$ ($U, V\in\mathcal{U}$) generate a pseudogroup $\mathcal{H}$ on $T$. $\mathcal{H}$ is called the '''holonomy pseudogroup''' of $\mathcal{F}$. \label{def:holonomy}{{endthm}} [[Image:chain1.jpeg|thumb|300px|Chain of plaques]] This means that any element of $\mathcal{H}$ assigns to a plaque $P$ the end plaque $P'$ of a '''chain''' (that is a sequence of plaques such that any two consequtive plaques intersect) which oroginates at $P$. Certainly, holonomy pseudogroups of arbitrary compact foliated manifolds are finitely generated. For example, gluing together two 2-dimensional Reeb foliations (see [[Foliations#Reeb Foliations]]) on $D^2\times S^1$ one gets a foliation of the 3-dimensional sphere $S^3$ for which any arc $T$ intersecting the unique toral leaf $T^2$ is a complete transversal; $T$ can be identified with a segment $(-\epsilon, \epsilon)$ ($\epsilon > 0$), the point of intersection $T\cap T^2$ with the number <script type="math/tex">X$, any group of transformations of $X$$X$ consists of maps defined globally on $X$$X$, mapping $X$$X$ bijectively onto itself and such that the composition of any two of them as well as the inverse of any of them belongs to the group. The same holds for a pseudogroup with this difference that the maps are not defined globally but on open subsets, so the domain of the composition is usually smaller than those of the maps being composed.

To make the above precise, let us take a topological space $X$$X$ and denote by Homeo$\, (X)$$\, (X)$ the family of all homeomorphisms between open subsets of $X$$X$. If $g\in$$g\in$ Homeo$\, (X)$$\, (X)$, then $D_g$$D_g$ is its domain and $R_g = g(D_g)$$R_g = g(D_g)$.

Definition 2.1. A subfamily $\Gamma$$\Gamma$ of Homeo$\, (X)$$\, (X)$ is said to be a pseudogroup if it is closed under composition, inversion, restriction to open subdomains and unions. More precisely, $\Gamma$$\Gamma$ should satisfy the following conditions:

(i) $g\circ h\in\Gamma$$g\circ h\in\Gamma$ whenever $g$$g$ and $h\in\Gamma$$h\in\Gamma$,

(ii) $g^{-1}\in\Gamma$$g^{-1}\in\Gamma$ whenever $g\in\Gamma$$g\in\Gamma$,

(iii) $g|U\in\Gamma$$g|U\in\Gamma$ whenever $g\in\Gamma$$g\in\Gamma$ and $U\subset D_g$$U\subset D_g$ is open,

(iv) if $g\in$$g\in$ Homeo$\, (X)$$\, (X)$, $\mathcal{U}$$\mathcal{U}$ is an open cover of $D_g$$D_g$ and $g|U\in\Gamma$$g|U\in\Gamma$ for any $U\in\mathcal{U}$$U\in\mathcal{U}$, then $g\in\Gamma$$g\in\Gamma$.

Moreover, we shall always assume that

(v] id$_X\in\Gamma$$_X\in\Gamma$ (or, equivalently, $\cup\{ D_g; g\in\Gamma\} = X$$\cup\{ D_g; g\in\Gamma\} = X$).

As examples, one may have (1) all the homeomorphisms between open sets of a topological space, (2) all the diffeomorhisms of a given class (say, $C^k$$C^k$, $k = 1, 2, \ldots, \infty, \omega$$k = 1, 2, \ldots, \infty, \omega$, between open sets of a manifold, (3) all the restrictions to open domains of elements of a given group $G$$G$ of homeomorphisms of a given topological space. (In the last case, we say that the pseudogroup is generated by $G$$G$.) Any set $A$$A$ of homeomorphisms bewteen open sets (with domains covering a space $X$$X$) generates ma pseudogroup $\Gamma (A)$$\Gamma (A)$ which is the smallest pseudogroup containing $A$$A$; precisely a homeomorphism $h:D_h\to R_h$$h:D_h\to R_h$ belongs to $\Gamma (A)$$\Gamma (A)$ if and only if for any point $x\in D_h$$x\in D_h$ there exist elements $h_1, \ldots, h_k\in A$$h_1, \ldots, h_k\in A$, exponents $\epsilon _1, \ldots, \epsilon _k\in\{ \pm 1\}$$\epsilon _1, \ldots, \epsilon _k\in\{ \pm 1\}$ and a neighbourhood $V$$V$ of $x$$x$ such that $h = h_1^{\epsilon _1}\circ\ldots\circ h_k^{\epsilon _k}$$h = h_1^{\epsilon _1}\circ\ldots\circ h_k^{\epsilon _k}$ on $V$$V$. If $A$$A$ is finite, $\Gamma (A)$$\Gamma (A)$ is said to be finitely generated.

3 Holonomy pesudogroups

Definition 3.1. A foliated atlas $\mathcal{A}$$\mathcal{A}$ on a foliated manifold $(M, \mathcal{F})$$(M, \mathcal{F})$ is said to be nice (also, nice is the

covering of

Tex syntax error

$M$ by the domains $D_\phi$$D_\phi$ of the charts $\phi\in\mathcal{A}$$\phi\in\mathcal{A}$) if

(i) the covering $\{ D_\phi ; \phi\in\mathcal{A}\}$$\{ D_\phi ; \phi\in\mathcal{A}\}$ is locally finite,

(ii) for any $\phi\in\mathcal{A}$$\phi\in\mathcal{A}$, $R_\phi = \phi (D_\phi )\subset\Bbb R^n$$R_\phi = \phi (D_\phi )\subset\Bbb R^n$ is an open cube,

(iii) if $\phi$$\phi$ and $\psi\in\mathcal{A}$$\psi\in\mathcal{A}$, and $D_\phi\cap D_\psi\ne\emptyset$$D_\phi\cap D_\psi\ne\emptyset$, then there exists a foliated chart chart $\chi$$\chi$ and such that $R_\chi$$R_\chi$ is an open cube, $D_\chi$$D_\chi$ contains the closure of $D_\phi\cup D_\psi$$D_\phi\cup D_\psi$ and $\phi = \chi |D_\phi$$\phi = \chi |D_\phi$.

Since manifolds are supposed to be paracompact here, they are separable and hence nice coverings are denumerable. Nice coverings on compact manifolds are finite. On arbitrary foliated manfiolds, nice coverings do exist.

Given a nice covering $\mathcal{U}$$\mathcal{U}$ of a foliated manifold $(M, \mathcal{F})$$(M, \mathcal{F})$. For any $U\in\mathcal{U}$$U\in\mathcal{U}$, let $T_U$$T_U$ be the space of the plaques (i.e., connected components of intersections $U\cap L$$U\cap L$. $L$$L$ being a leaf of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$) of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ contained in $U$$U$. Equip $T_U = U/(\mathcal{F}|U)$$T_U = U/(\mathcal{F}|U)$ with the quotient topology: two points of $U$$U$ are equivalent iff they belong to the same plaque. $T_U$$T_U$ is homeomorphic ($C^r$$C^r$-diffeomorphic when $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ is $C^r$$C^r$-differentiable and $r\ge 1$$r\ge 1$) to an open cube $Q\subset\Bbb R^q$$Q\subset\Bbb R^q$ ($q = \text{codim}\, \mathcal{F}$$q = \text{codim}\, \mathcal{F}$) via the map $\phi''$$\phi''$, where $\phi = (\phi ', \phi ''):U\to\Bbb R^p\times\Bbb R^q$$\phi = (\phi ', \phi ''):U\to\Bbb R^p\times\Bbb R^q$ is a foliated chart on $U$$U$. The disjoint union

$\displaystyle T = \sqcup\{T_U; U\in\mathcal{U}\}$ $$\displaystyle T = \sqcup\{T_U; U\in\mathcal{U}\}$$

is called a complete transversal for $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$. Transversality refers to the fact that, if $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ is differentiable of class $C^r$$C^r$, $r > 0$$r > 0$, each of the spaces $T_U$$T_U$ can be mapped homeomorphically onto a $C^r$$C^r$-submanifold $T_U'\subset U$$T_U'\subset U$ transverse to $U$$U$: if $x\in T_U'$$x\in T_U'$ and $L$$L$ is the leaf of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ passing through $x$$x$, then

$\displaystyle T_xM = T_xT_U'\oplus T_xL.$ $$\displaystyle T_xM = T_xT_U'\oplus T_xL.$$

Completeness of $T$$T$ means that every leaf of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ intersects at least one of the submanifolds $T_U'$$T_U'$.

Definition 3.2. Given a nice covering $\mathcal{U}$$\mathcal{U}$ of a foliated manifold $(M,\mathcal{F})$$(M,\mathcal{F})$ and two sets $U$$U$ and $V\in\mathcal{U}$$V\in\mathcal{U}$ such that $U\cap V\ne\emptyset$$U\cap V\ne\emptyset$ the holonomy map $h_{VU}: D_{VU}\to T_V$$h_{VU}: D_{VU}\to T_V$, $D_{VU}$$D_{VU}$ being the open subset of $T_U$$T_U$ which consists of all the plaques $P$$P$ of $U$$U$ for which $P\cap V\ne\emptyset$$P\cap V\ne\emptyset$, is defined in the following way:

$\displaystyle h_{VU}(P) = P'\ \Leftrightarrow\ \text{the plaques}\ P\subset U\ \text{and}\ P'\subset V\ \text{intersect}.$ $$\displaystyle h_{VU}(P) = P'\ \Leftrightarrow\ \text{the plaques}\ P\subset U\ \text{and}\ P'\subset V\ \text{intersect}.$$

All the maps $h_{UV}$$h_{UV}$ ($U, V\in\mathcal{U}$$U, V\in\mathcal{U}$) generate a pseudogroup $\mathcal{H}$$\mathcal{H}$ on $T$$T$. $\mathcal{H}$$\mathcal{H}$ is called the holonomy pseudogroup of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$.

Chain of plaques

This means that any element of $\mathcal{H}$$\mathcal{H}$ assigns to a plaque $P$$P$ the end plaque $P'$$P'$ of a chain (that is a sequence of plaques such that any two consequtive plaques intersect) which oroginates at $P$$P$.

Certainly, holonomy pseudogroups of arbitrary compact foliated manifolds are finitely generated. For example, gluing together two 2-dimensional Reeb foliations (see Foliations#Reeb Foliations) on $D^2\times S^1$$D^2\times S^1$ one gets a foliation of the 3-dimensional sphere $S^3$$S^3$ for which any arc $T$$T$ intersecting the unique toral leaf $T^2$$T^2$ is a complete transversal; $T$$T$ can be identified with a segment $(-\epsilon, \epsilon)$$(-\epsilon, \epsilon)$ ($\epsilon > 0$$\epsilon > 0$), the point of intersection $T\cap T^2$$T\cap T^2$ with the number $0$$0$, while the holonomy group with the one on our segment generated by two maps $h_+, h_- :T\to T$$h_+, h_- :T\to T$ such that $h_+|[0, \epsilon ) = \id$$h_+|[0, \epsilon ) = \id$, $h_-|(-\epsilon , 0] = \id$$h_-|(-\epsilon , 0] = \id$, $h_+|(-\epsilon , 0]$$h_+|(-\epsilon , 0]$ snd $h_-|[0, \epsilon)$$h_-|[0, \epsilon)$ contract their domains towards $0$$0$.

4 Growth

Let us begin with two non-decreasing sequences $(a_n)$$(a_n)$ and $(b_n)$$(b_n)$ of non-negative numbers. We shall say that $(a_n)$$(a_n)$ "grows slower" that $(b_n)$$(b_n)$ ($(a_n)\preceq (b_n)$$(a_n)\preceq (b_n)$) whenever there exist positive constants $a$$a$ and $c$$c$ such that the inequalities

$\displaystyle a_n\le a\cdot b_{cn}$ $$\displaystyle a_n\le a\cdot b_{cn}$$

hold for all $n\in\mathbb N$$n\in\mathbb N$. We say that types of growth of our sequences $(a_n)$$(a_n)$ and $(b_n)$$(b_n)$ are the same whenever

$\displaystyle (a_n)\preceq (b_n)\preceq (a_n).$ $$\displaystyle (a_n)\preceq (b_n)\preceq (a_n).$$

Let now $\mathcal{T}$$\mathcal{T}$ be the set of non-negative increasing functions defined on $\Bbb N$$\Bbb N$:

$\displaystyle \mathcal{T} = \{ t:\Bbb N\to [0,\infty ); t(n)\le t(n+1)\ \text{for all}\ n\in\Bbb N\} ,$ $$\displaystyle \mathcal{T} = \{ t:\Bbb N\to [0,\infty ); t(n)\le t(n+1)\ \text{for all}\ n\in\Bbb N\} ,$$

and $\hat{\mathcal{T}}$$\hat{\mathcal{T}}$ the set of increasing sequences with entries in $\mathcal{T}$$\mathcal{T}$:

$\displaystyle \hat{\mathcal{T}} = \{ (t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}; t_j\in\mathcal{T}\ \text{and}\ t_j(n)\le t_{j+1}(n)\ \text{for all}\ j\ \text{and}\ n\in\Bbb N\} .$ $$\displaystyle \hat{\mathcal{T}} = \{ (t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}; t_j\in\mathcal{T}\ \text{and}\ t_j(n)\le t_{j+1}(n)\ \text{for all}\ j\ \text{and}\ n\in\Bbb N\} .$$

Elements $t$$t$ of $\mathcal{T}$$\mathcal{T}$ can be identified with sequences $(t,t,\dots )$$(t,t,\dots )$, so $\mathcal{T}$$\mathcal{T}$ can be considered as a subset of $\hat{\mathcal{T}}$$\hat{\mathcal{T}}$.

A preorder $\preceq$$\preceq$ defined by the condition:

(*) $(t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}\preceq (\tau_k)_{k\in\Bbb N}$$(t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}\preceq (\tau_k)_{k\in\Bbb N}$ if and only if there exists $b\in\Bbb N$$b\in\Bbb N$ such that for all $j\in\Bbb N$$j\in\Bbb N$ the inequalities $t_j(n)\le a\tau_k (bn), \quad n\in\Bbb N,$$t_j(n)\le a\tau_k (bn), \quad n\in\Bbb N,$

induces an equivalence relation $\simeq$$\simeq$ in $\hat{\mathcal{T}}$$\hat{\mathcal{T}}$:

$\displaystyle (t_j)\simeq (\tau_k)\ \text{if and only if}\ (t_j)\preceq (\tau_k)\ \text{and}\ (\tau_k)\preceq (t_j).$ $$\displaystyle (t_j)\simeq (\tau_k)\ \text{if and only if}\ (t_j)\preceq (\tau_k)\ \text{and}\ (\tau_k)\preceq (t_j).$$

In particular, if $t$$t$ and $\tau\in\mathcal{T}$$\tau\in\mathcal{T}$, then

$\displaystyle t\preceq\tau\Leftrightarrow t(n)\le a\tau (bn)$ $$\displaystyle t\preceq\tau\Leftrightarrow t(n)\le a\tau (bn)$$

and

$\displaystyle t\simeq\tau\Leftrightarrow a^{-1}\tau ([n/b] )\le t(n)\le a\tau (bn)$ $$\displaystyle t\simeq\tau\Leftrightarrow a^{-1}\tau ([n/b] )\le t(n)\le a\tau (bn)$$

for all $n\in\Bbb N$$n\in\Bbb N$ and some $a,b\in\Bbb N$$a,b\in\Bbb N$. (Here, $[x]$$[x]$ is the largest integer which does not exceed $x$$x$, $x\in\Bbb R$$x\in\Bbb R$.)

Definition 4.1. Elements of the quotient $\hat{\mathcal{E}} = \hat{\mathcal{T}}/\simeq$$\hat{\mathcal{E}} = \hat{\mathcal{T}}/\simeq$ are called growth types. The growth type of $(t_j)\in\hat{\mathcal{T}}$$(t_j)\in\hat{\mathcal{T}}$ (resp., of $t\in\mathcal{T}$$t\in\mathcal{T}$) is denoted by $[(t_j)]$$[(t_j)]$ (resp., by $[t]$$[t]$). Also, we let $\mathcal{E} = \{ [t];\, t\in\mathcal{T}\}$$\mathcal{E} = \{ [t];\, t\in\mathcal{T}\}$. $\mathcal{E}$$\mathcal{E}$ is the set of growth types of monotone functions (in the sense of [Hector&Hirsch1981]). The preorder $\preceq$$\preceq$ induces a partial order (denoted again by $\preceq$$\preceq$) in $\hat{\mathcal{E}}$$\hat{\mathcal{E}}$.

Example 4.2. $[0]\preceq [1]\preceq [\log n]\preceq [n]\preceq [n^2]\preceq\dots\preceq [(1, n, n^2, \dots )]\preceq [2^n]\preceq [(1, 2^n, 3^n,\dots )]$$[0]\preceq [1]\preceq [\log n]\preceq [n]\preceq [n^2]\preceq\dots\preceq [(1, n, n^2, \dots )]\preceq [2^n]\preceq [(1, 2^n, 3^n,\dots )]$ and all the growth types listed above are different. The growth type of any polynomial of degree $d\ge 0$$d\ge 0$ is equal to $[n^d]$$[n^d]$ and is called polynomial (of degree $d$$d$). $[a^n] = [e^n]$$[a^n] = [e^n]$ for any $a > 1$$a > 1$ and this growth type is called exponential.

4.1 Growth in groups

For most of results listed here we refer to [Hector&Hirsch1981].

Let $G$$G$ be a finitely generated group and $G_1$$G_1$ a finite {\it symmetric} (i.e. such that $e\in G_1$$e\in G_1$ and $G_1^{-1} = \{ g^{-1};\, g\in G_1\}\subset G_1$$G_1^{-1} = \{ g^{-1};\, g\in G_1\}\subset G_1$) set generating it. For any $n\in\Bbb N$$n\in\Bbb N$ let

$\displaystyle G_n = \{ g_1\cdot\dots\cdot g_n;\ g_1,\dots , g_n\in G_1\}$ $$\displaystyle G_n = \{ g_1\cdot\dots\cdot g_n;\ g_1,\dots , g_n\in G_1\}$$

and

$\displaystyle t_G(n) = \# G_n.$ $$\displaystyle t_G(n) = \# G_n.$$

The type of growth of $t_G$$t_G$ does not depend on $G_1$$G_1$, so we may write the following.

Definition 4.3. The growth type $gr (G)$$gr (G)$ of $G$$G$ is defined as $[t_G]$$[t_G]$ for any finite symmetric generating set $G_1$$G_1$. If $G$$G$ acts on a space $X$$X$ and $x\in X$$x\in X$, then the growth type $gr (G,x)$$gr (G,x)$ of $G$$G$ at $x$$x$ is defined in a similar way: $gr (G,x) = [t_x]$$gr (G,x) = [t_x]$, where

$\displaystyle t_x(n) = \#\{ g(x);\ g\in G_n\}$ $$\displaystyle t_x(n) = \#\{ g(x);\ g\in G_n\}$$

for any fixed finite symmetric generating set $G_1$$G_1$.

Example 4.4. A finite group has the growth type $[1]$$[1]$ while the abelian group $\Bbb Z^d$$\Bbb Z^d$ has the polynomial growth of degree $d$$d$. Any free (non-abelian) group has the exponential growth $[e^n]$$[e^n]$.

Proposition 4.5. For any finitely generated group $G$$G$ and any normal subgroup $H$$H$ of $G$$G$ we have $gr (G/H)\preceq gr (G)\preceq [e^n].$$gr (G/H)\preceq gr (G)\preceq [e^n].$

Proposition 4.6. Any finitely generated abelian group of rank $d$$d$ has the growth type $[n^d]$$[n^d]$.

\

Proposition 4.7. Any finitely generated nilpotent group is of polynomial type of growth.

8 References

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• [Haefliger1962a] A. Haefliger, Variétés feuilletées, Ann. Scuola Norm. Sup. Pisa (3) 16 (1962), 367–397. MR0189060 (32 #6487) Zbl 0196.25005
• [Hector&Hirsch1981] G. Hector and U. Hirsch, Introduction to the geometry of foliations. Part A, Friedr. Vieweg \& Sohn, Braunschweig, 1981. MR639738 (83d:57019) Zbl 0628.57001
• [Veblen&Whitehead1932] O. Veblen and J. Whitehead, The foundations of differential geometry, Cambridge Tracts in Math. a. Math. Phys. 29) London: Cambridge Univ. Press. IX, 97 S., 1932. Zbl 0005.21801
• [Walczak2004] P. Walczak, Dynamics of foliations, groups and pseudogroups, Birkhäuser Verlag, 2004. MR2056374 (2005d:57042) Zbl 1084.37022

$, while the holonomy group with the one on our segment generated by two maps $h_+, h_- :T\to T$ such that $h_+|[0, \epsilon ) = \id$, $h_-|(-\epsilon , 0] = \id$, $h_+|(-\epsilon , 0]$ snd $h_-|[0, \epsilon)$ contract their domains towards $X$, any group of transformations of $X$$X$ consists of maps defined globally on $X$$X$, mapping $X$$X$ bijectively onto itself and such that the composition of any two of them as well as the inverse of any of them belongs to the group. The same holds for a pseudogroup with this difference that the maps are not defined globally but on open subsets, so the domain of the composition is usually smaller than those of the maps being composed.

To make the above precise, let us take a topological space $X$$X$ and denote by Homeo$\, (X)$$\, (X)$ the family of all homeomorphisms between open subsets of $X$$X$. If $g\in$$g\in$ Homeo$\, (X)$$\, (X)$, then $D_g$$D_g$ is its domain and $R_g = g(D_g)$$R_g = g(D_g)$.

Definition 2.1. A subfamily $\Gamma$$\Gamma$ of Homeo$\, (X)$$\, (X)$ is said to be a pseudogroup if it is closed under composition, inversion, restriction to open subdomains and unions. More precisely, $\Gamma$$\Gamma$ should satisfy the following conditions:

(i) $g\circ h\in\Gamma$$g\circ h\in\Gamma$ whenever $g$$g$ and $h\in\Gamma$$h\in\Gamma$,

(ii) $g^{-1}\in\Gamma$$g^{-1}\in\Gamma$ whenever $g\in\Gamma$$g\in\Gamma$,

(iii) $g|U\in\Gamma$$g|U\in\Gamma$ whenever $g\in\Gamma$$g\in\Gamma$ and $U\subset D_g$$U\subset D_g$ is open,

(iv) if $g\in$$g\in$ Homeo$\, (X)$$\, (X)$, $\mathcal{U}$$\mathcal{U}$ is an open cover of $D_g$$D_g$ and $g|U\in\Gamma$$g|U\in\Gamma$ for any $U\in\mathcal{U}$$U\in\mathcal{U}$, then $g\in\Gamma$$g\in\Gamma$.

Moreover, we shall always assume that

(v] id$_X\in\Gamma$$_X\in\Gamma$ (or, equivalently, $\cup\{ D_g; g\in\Gamma\} = X$$\cup\{ D_g; g\in\Gamma\} = X$).

As examples, one may have (1) all the homeomorphisms between open sets of a topological space, (2) all the diffeomorhisms of a given class (say, $C^k$$C^k$, $k = 1, 2, \ldots, \infty, \omega$$k = 1, 2, \ldots, \infty, \omega$, between open sets of a manifold, (3) all the restrictions to open domains of elements of a given group $G$$G$ of homeomorphisms of a given topological space. (In the last case, we say that the pseudogroup is generated by $G$$G$.) Any set $A$$A$ of homeomorphisms bewteen open sets (with domains covering a space $X$$X$) generates ma pseudogroup $\Gamma (A)$$\Gamma (A)$ which is the smallest pseudogroup containing $A$$A$; precisely a homeomorphism $h:D_h\to R_h$$h:D_h\to R_h$ belongs to $\Gamma (A)$$\Gamma (A)$ if and only if for any point $x\in D_h$$x\in D_h$ there exist elements $h_1, \ldots, h_k\in A$$h_1, \ldots, h_k\in A$, exponents $\epsilon _1, \ldots, \epsilon _k\in\{ \pm 1\}$$\epsilon _1, \ldots, \epsilon _k\in\{ \pm 1\}$ and a neighbourhood $V$$V$ of $x$$x$ such that $h = h_1^{\epsilon _1}\circ\ldots\circ h_k^{\epsilon _k}$$h = h_1^{\epsilon _1}\circ\ldots\circ h_k^{\epsilon _k}$ on $V$$V$. If $A$$A$ is finite, $\Gamma (A)$$\Gamma (A)$ is said to be finitely generated.

3 Holonomy pesudogroups

Definition 3.1. A foliated atlas $\mathcal{A}$$\mathcal{A}$ on a foliated manifold $(M, \mathcal{F})$$(M, \mathcal{F})$ is said to be nice (also, nice is the

covering of

Tex syntax error

$M$ by the domains $D_\phi$$D_\phi$ of the charts $\phi\in\mathcal{A}$$\phi\in\mathcal{A}$) if

(i) the covering $\{ D_\phi ; \phi\in\mathcal{A}\}$$\{ D_\phi ; \phi\in\mathcal{A}\}$ is locally finite,

(ii) for any $\phi\in\mathcal{A}$$\phi\in\mathcal{A}$, $R_\phi = \phi (D_\phi )\subset\Bbb R^n$$R_\phi = \phi (D_\phi )\subset\Bbb R^n$ is an open cube,

(iii) if $\phi$$\phi$ and $\psi\in\mathcal{A}$$\psi\in\mathcal{A}$, and $D_\phi\cap D_\psi\ne\emptyset$$D_\phi\cap D_\psi\ne\emptyset$, then there exists a foliated chart chart $\chi$$\chi$ and such that $R_\chi$$R_\chi$ is an open cube, $D_\chi$$D_\chi$ contains the closure of $D_\phi\cup D_\psi$$D_\phi\cup D_\psi$ and $\phi = \chi |D_\phi$$\phi = \chi |D_\phi$.

Since manifolds are supposed to be paracompact here, they are separable and hence nice coverings are denumerable. Nice coverings on compact manifolds are finite. On arbitrary foliated manfiolds, nice coverings do exist.

Given a nice covering $\mathcal{U}$$\mathcal{U}$ of a foliated manifold $(M, \mathcal{F})$$(M, \mathcal{F})$. For any $U\in\mathcal{U}$$U\in\mathcal{U}$, let $T_U$$T_U$ be the space of the plaques (i.e., connected components of intersections $U\cap L$$U\cap L$. $L$$L$ being a leaf of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$) of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ contained in $U$$U$. Equip $T_U = U/(\mathcal{F}|U)$$T_U = U/(\mathcal{F}|U)$ with the quotient topology: two points of $U$$U$ are equivalent iff they belong to the same plaque. $T_U$$T_U$ is homeomorphic ($C^r$$C^r$-diffeomorphic when $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ is $C^r$$C^r$-differentiable and $r\ge 1$$r\ge 1$) to an open cube $Q\subset\Bbb R^q$$Q\subset\Bbb R^q$ ($q = \text{codim}\, \mathcal{F}$$q = \text{codim}\, \mathcal{F}$) via the map $\phi''$$\phi''$, where $\phi = (\phi ', \phi ''):U\to\Bbb R^p\times\Bbb R^q$$\phi = (\phi ', \phi ''):U\to\Bbb R^p\times\Bbb R^q$ is a foliated chart on $U$$U$. The disjoint union

$\displaystyle T = \sqcup\{T_U; U\in\mathcal{U}\}$ $$\displaystyle T = \sqcup\{T_U; U\in\mathcal{U}\}$$

is called a complete transversal for $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$. Transversality refers to the fact that, if $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ is differentiable of class $C^r$$C^r$, $r > 0$$r > 0$, each of the spaces $T_U$$T_U$ can be mapped homeomorphically onto a $C^r$$C^r$-submanifold $T_U'\subset U$$T_U'\subset U$ transverse to $U$$U$: if $x\in T_U'$$x\in T_U'$ and $L$$L$ is the leaf of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ passing through $x$$x$, then

$\displaystyle T_xM = T_xT_U'\oplus T_xL.$ $$\displaystyle T_xM = T_xT_U'\oplus T_xL.$$

Completeness of $T$$T$ means that every leaf of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ intersects at least one of the submanifolds $T_U'$$T_U'$.

Definition 3.2. Given a nice covering $\mathcal{U}$$\mathcal{U}$ of a foliated manifold $(M,\mathcal{F})$$(M,\mathcal{F})$ and two sets $U$$U$ and $V\in\mathcal{U}$$V\in\mathcal{U}$ such that $U\cap V\ne\emptyset$$U\cap V\ne\emptyset$ the holonomy map $h_{VU}: D_{VU}\to T_V$$h_{VU}: D_{VU}\to T_V$, $D_{VU}$$D_{VU}$ being the open subset of $T_U$$T_U$ which consists of all the plaques $P$$P$ of $U$$U$ for which $P\cap V\ne\emptyset$$P\cap V\ne\emptyset$, is defined in the following way:

$\displaystyle h_{VU}(P) = P'\ \Leftrightarrow\ \text{the plaques}\ P\subset U\ \text{and}\ P'\subset V\ \text{intersect}.$ $$\displaystyle h_{VU}(P) = P'\ \Leftrightarrow\ \text{the plaques}\ P\subset U\ \text{and}\ P'\subset V\ \text{intersect}.$$

All the maps $h_{UV}$$h_{UV}$ ($U, V\in\mathcal{U}$$U, V\in\mathcal{U}$) generate a pseudogroup $\mathcal{H}$$\mathcal{H}$ on $T$$T$. $\mathcal{H}$$\mathcal{H}$ is called the holonomy pseudogroup of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$.

Chain of plaques

This means that any element of $\mathcal{H}$$\mathcal{H}$ assigns to a plaque $P$$P$ the end plaque $P'$$P'$ of a chain (that is a sequence of plaques such that any two consequtive plaques intersect) which oroginates at $P$$P$.

Certainly, holonomy pseudogroups of arbitrary compact foliated manifolds are finitely generated. For example, gluing together two 2-dimensional Reeb foliations (see Foliations#Reeb Foliations) on $D^2\times S^1$$D^2\times S^1$ one gets a foliation of the 3-dimensional sphere $S^3$$S^3$ for which any arc $T$$T$ intersecting the unique toral leaf $T^2$$T^2$ is a complete transversal; $T$$T$ can be identified with a segment $(-\epsilon, \epsilon)$$(-\epsilon, \epsilon)$ ($\epsilon > 0$$\epsilon > 0$), the point of intersection $T\cap T^2$$T\cap T^2$ with the number $0$$0$, while the holonomy group with the one on our segment generated by two maps $h_+, h_- :T\to T$$h_+, h_- :T\to T$ such that $h_+|[0, \epsilon ) = \id$$h_+|[0, \epsilon ) = \id$, $h_-|(-\epsilon , 0] = \id$$h_-|(-\epsilon , 0] = \id$, $h_+|(-\epsilon , 0]$$h_+|(-\epsilon , 0]$ snd $h_-|[0, \epsilon)$$h_-|[0, \epsilon)$ contract their domains towards $0$$0$.

4 Growth

Let us begin with two non-decreasing sequences $(a_n)$$(a_n)$ and $(b_n)$$(b_n)$ of non-negative numbers. We shall say that $(a_n)$$(a_n)$ "grows slower" that $(b_n)$$(b_n)$ ($(a_n)\preceq (b_n)$$(a_n)\preceq (b_n)$) whenever there exist positive constants $a$$a$ and $c$$c$ such that the inequalities

$\displaystyle a_n\le a\cdot b_{cn}$ $$\displaystyle a_n\le a\cdot b_{cn}$$

hold for all $n\in\mathbb N$$n\in\mathbb N$. We say that types of growth of our sequences $(a_n)$$(a_n)$ and $(b_n)$$(b_n)$ are the same whenever

$\displaystyle (a_n)\preceq (b_n)\preceq (a_n).$ $$\displaystyle (a_n)\preceq (b_n)\preceq (a_n).$$

Let now $\mathcal{T}$$\mathcal{T}$ be the set of non-negative increasing functions defined on $\Bbb N$$\Bbb N$:

$\displaystyle \mathcal{T} = \{ t:\Bbb N\to [0,\infty ); t(n)\le t(n+1)\ \text{for all}\ n\in\Bbb N\} ,$ $$\displaystyle \mathcal{T} = \{ t:\Bbb N\to [0,\infty ); t(n)\le t(n+1)\ \text{for all}\ n\in\Bbb N\} ,$$

and $\hat{\mathcal{T}}$$\hat{\mathcal{T}}$ the set of increasing sequences with entries in $\mathcal{T}$$\mathcal{T}$:

$\displaystyle \hat{\mathcal{T}} = \{ (t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}; t_j\in\mathcal{T}\ \text{and}\ t_j(n)\le t_{j+1}(n)\ \text{for all}\ j\ \text{and}\ n\in\Bbb N\} .$ $$\displaystyle \hat{\mathcal{T}} = \{ (t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}; t_j\in\mathcal{T}\ \text{and}\ t_j(n)\le t_{j+1}(n)\ \text{for all}\ j\ \text{and}\ n\in\Bbb N\} .$$

Elements $t$$t$ of $\mathcal{T}$$\mathcal{T}$ can be identified with sequences $(t,t,\dots )$$(t,t,\dots )$, so $\mathcal{T}$$\mathcal{T}$ can be considered as a subset of $\hat{\mathcal{T}}$$\hat{\mathcal{T}}$.

A preorder $\preceq$$\preceq$ defined by the condition:

(*) $(t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}\preceq (\tau_k)_{k\in\Bbb N}$$(t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}\preceq (\tau_k)_{k\in\Bbb N}$ if and only if there exists $b\in\Bbb N$$b\in\Bbb N$ such that for all $j\in\Bbb N$$j\in\Bbb N$ the inequalities $t_j(n)\le a\tau_k (bn), \quad n\in\Bbb N,$$t_j(n)\le a\tau_k (bn), \quad n\in\Bbb N,$

induces an equivalence relation $\simeq$$\simeq$ in $\hat{\mathcal{T}}$$\hat{\mathcal{T}}$:

$\displaystyle (t_j)\simeq (\tau_k)\ \text{if and only if}\ (t_j)\preceq (\tau_k)\ \text{and}\ (\tau_k)\preceq (t_j).$ $$\displaystyle (t_j)\simeq (\tau_k)\ \text{if and only if}\ (t_j)\preceq (\tau_k)\ \text{and}\ (\tau_k)\preceq (t_j).$$

In particular, if $t$$t$ and $\tau\in\mathcal{T}$$\tau\in\mathcal{T}$, then

$\displaystyle t\preceq\tau\Leftrightarrow t(n)\le a\tau (bn)$ $$\displaystyle t\preceq\tau\Leftrightarrow t(n)\le a\tau (bn)$$

and

$\displaystyle t\simeq\tau\Leftrightarrow a^{-1}\tau ([n/b] )\le t(n)\le a\tau (bn)$ $$\displaystyle t\simeq\tau\Leftrightarrow a^{-1}\tau ([n/b] )\le t(n)\le a\tau (bn)$$

for all $n\in\Bbb N$$n\in\Bbb N$ and some $a,b\in\Bbb N$$a,b\in\Bbb N$. (Here, $[x]$$[x]$ is the largest integer which does not exceed $x$$x$, $x\in\Bbb R$$x\in\Bbb R$.)

Definition 4.1. Elements of the quotient $\hat{\mathcal{E}} = \hat{\mathcal{T}}/\simeq$$\hat{\mathcal{E}} = \hat{\mathcal{T}}/\simeq$ are called growth types. The growth type of $(t_j)\in\hat{\mathcal{T}}$$(t_j)\in\hat{\mathcal{T}}$ (resp., of $t\in\mathcal{T}$$t\in\mathcal{T}$) is denoted by $[(t_j)]$$[(t_j)]$ (resp., by $[t]$$[t]$). Also, we let $\mathcal{E} = \{ [t];\, t\in\mathcal{T}\}$$\mathcal{E} = \{ [t];\, t\in\mathcal{T}\}$. $\mathcal{E}$$\mathcal{E}$ is the set of growth types of monotone functions (in the sense of [Hector&Hirsch1981]). The preorder $\preceq$$\preceq$ induces a partial order (denoted again by $\preceq$$\preceq$) in $\hat{\mathcal{E}}$$\hat{\mathcal{E}}$.

Example 4.2. $[0]\preceq [1]\preceq [\log n]\preceq [n]\preceq [n^2]\preceq\dots\preceq [(1, n, n^2, \dots )]\preceq [2^n]\preceq [(1, 2^n, 3^n,\dots )]$$[0]\preceq [1]\preceq [\log n]\preceq [n]\preceq [n^2]\preceq\dots\preceq [(1, n, n^2, \dots )]\preceq [2^n]\preceq [(1, 2^n, 3^n,\dots )]$ and all the growth types listed above are different. The growth type of any polynomial of degree $d\ge 0$$d\ge 0$ is equal to $[n^d]$$[n^d]$ and is called polynomial (of degree $d$$d$). $[a^n] = [e^n]$$[a^n] = [e^n]$ for any $a > 1$$a > 1$ and this growth type is called exponential.

4.1 Growth in groups

For most of results listed here we refer to [Hector&Hirsch1981].

Let $G$$G$ be a finitely generated group and $G_1$$G_1$ a finite {\it symmetric} (i.e. such that $e\in G_1$$e\in G_1$ and $G_1^{-1} = \{ g^{-1};\, g\in G_1\}\subset G_1$$G_1^{-1} = \{ g^{-1};\, g\in G_1\}\subset G_1$) set generating it. For any $n\in\Bbb N$$n\in\Bbb N$ let

$\displaystyle G_n = \{ g_1\cdot\dots\cdot g_n;\ g_1,\dots , g_n\in G_1\}$ $$\displaystyle G_n = \{ g_1\cdot\dots\cdot g_n;\ g_1,\dots , g_n\in G_1\}$$

and

$\displaystyle t_G(n) = \# G_n.$ $$\displaystyle t_G(n) = \# G_n.$$

The type of growth of $t_G$$t_G$ does not depend on $G_1$$G_1$, so we may write the following.

Definition 4.3. The growth type $gr (G)$$gr (G)$ of $G$$G$ is defined as $[t_G]$$[t_G]$ for any finite symmetric generating set $G_1$$G_1$. If $G$$G$ acts on a space $X$$X$ and $x\in X$$x\in X$, then the growth type $gr (G,x)$$gr (G,x)$ of $G$$G$ at $x$$x$ is defined in a similar way: $gr (G,x) = [t_x]$$gr (G,x) = [t_x]$, where

$\displaystyle t_x(n) = \#\{ g(x);\ g\in G_n\}$ $$\displaystyle t_x(n) = \#\{ g(x);\ g\in G_n\}$$

for any fixed finite symmetric generating set $G_1$$G_1$.

Example 4.4. A finite group has the growth type $[1]$$[1]$ while the abelian group $\Bbb Z^d$$\Bbb Z^d$ has the polynomial growth of degree $d$$d$. Any free (non-abelian) group has the exponential growth $[e^n]$$[e^n]$.

Proposition 4.5. For any finitely generated group $G$$G$ and any normal subgroup $H$$H$ of $G$$G$ we have $gr (G/H)\preceq gr (G)\preceq [e^n].$$gr (G/H)\preceq gr (G)\preceq [e^n].$

Proposition 4.6. Any finitely generated abelian group of rank $d$$d$ has the growth type $[n^d]$$[n^d]$.

\

Proposition 4.7. Any finitely generated nilpotent group is of polynomial type of growth.

8 References

• [Ghys&Langevin&Walczak1988] É. Ghys, R. Langevin and P. Walczak, Entropie géométrique des feuilletages, Acta Math. 160 (1988), no.1-2, 105–142. MR926526 (89a:57034) Zbl 0666.57021
• [Haefliger1962a] A. Haefliger, Variétés feuilletées, Ann. Scuola Norm. Sup. Pisa (3) 16 (1962), 367–397. MR0189060 (32 #6487) Zbl 0196.25005
• [Hector&Hirsch1981] G. Hector and U. Hirsch, Introduction to the geometry of foliations. Part A, Friedr. Vieweg \& Sohn, Braunschweig, 1981. MR639738 (83d:57019) Zbl 0628.57001
• [Veblen&Whitehead1932] O. Veblen and J. Whitehead, The foundations of differential geometry, Cambridge Tracts in Math. a. Math. Phys. 29) London: Cambridge Univ. Press. IX, 97 S., 1932. Zbl 0005.21801
• [Walczak2004] P. Walczak, Dynamics of foliations, groups and pseudogroups, Birkhäuser Verlag, 2004. MR2056374 (2005d:57042) Zbl 1084.37022

$. ==Growth== ; Let us begin with two non-decreasing sequences $(a_n)$ and $(b_n)$ of non-negative numbers. We shall say that $(a_n)$ "grows slower" that $(b_n)$ ($(a_n)\preceq (b_n)$) whenever there exist positive constants $a$ and $c$ such that the inequalities $$a_n\le a\cdot b_{cn}$$ hold for all $n\in\mathbb N$. We say that '''types of growth''' of our sequences $(a_n)$ and $(b_n)$ are the same whenever $$(a_n)\preceq (b_n)\preceq (a_n).$$ Let now $\mathcal{T}$ be the set of non-negative increasing functions defined on $\Bbb N$: $$ \mathcal{T} = \{ t:\Bbb N\to [0,\infty ); t(n)\le t(n+1)\ \text{for all}\ n\in\Bbb N\} , $$ and $\hat{\mathcal{T}}$ the set of increasing sequences with entries in $\mathcal{T}$: $$ \hat{\mathcal{T}} = \{ (t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}; t_j\in\mathcal{T}\ \text{and}\ t_j(n)\le t_{j+1}(n)\ \text{for all}\ j\ \text{and}\ n\in\Bbb N\} . $$ Elements $t$ of $\mathcal{T}$ can be identified with sequences $(t,t,\dots )$, so $\mathcal{T}$ can be considered as a subset of $\hat{\mathcal{T}}$. A preorder $\preceq$ defined by the condition: (*) $(t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}\preceq (\tau_k)_{k\in\Bbb N}$ if and only if there exists $b\in\Bbb N$ such that for all $j\in\Bbb N$ the inequalities $t_j(n)\le a\tau_k (bn), \quad n\in\Bbb N,$ induces an equivalence relation $\simeq$ in $\hat{\mathcal{T}}$: $$ (t_j)\simeq (\tau_k)\ \text{if and only if}\ (t_j)\preceq (\tau_k)\ \text{and}\ (\tau_k)\preceq (t_j). $$ In particular, if $t$ and $\tau\in\mathcal{T}$, then $$ t\preceq\tau\Leftrightarrow t(n)\le a\tau (bn) $$ and $$ t\simeq\tau\Leftrightarrow a^{-1}\tau ([n/b] )\le t(n)\le a\tau (bn) $$ for all $n\in\Bbb N$ and some $a,b\in\Bbb N$. (Here, $[x]$ is the largest integer which does not exceed $x$, $x\in\Bbb R$.) {{beginthm|Definition}} Elements of the quotient $\hat{\mathcal{E}} = \hat{\mathcal{T}}/\simeq$ are called '''growth types'''. The growth type of $(t_j)\in\hat{\mathcal{T}}$ (resp., of $t\in\mathcal{T}$) is denoted by $[(t_j)]$ (resp., by $[t]$). Also, we let $\mathcal{E} = \{ [t];\, t\in\mathcal{T}\}$. $\mathcal{E}$ is the set of growth types of monotone functions (in the sense of \cite{Hector&Hirsch1981}). The preorder $\preceq$ induces a partial order (denoted again by $\preceq$) in $\hat{\mathcal{E}}$. {{endthm}} {{beginthm|Example}} $[0]\preceq [1]\preceq [\log n]\preceq [n]\preceq [n^2]\preceq\dots\preceq [(1, n, n^2, \dots )]\preceq [2^n]\preceq [(1, 2^n, 3^n,\dots )]$ and all the growth types listed above are different. The growth type of any polynomial of degree $d\ge 0$ is equal to $[n^d]$ and is called '''polynomial''' (of degree $d$). $[a^n] = [e^n]$ for any $a > 1$ and this growth type is called '''exponential'''. {{endthm}} ===Growth in groups=== ; For most of results listed here we refer to \cite{Hector&Hirsch1981}. Let $G$ be a finitely generated group and $G_1$ a finite {\it symmetric} (i.e. such that $e\in G_1$ and $G_1^{-1} = \{ g^{-1};\, g\in G_1\}\subset G_1$) set generating it. For any $n\in\Bbb N$ let $$ G_n = \{ g_1\cdot\dots\cdot g_n;\ g_1,\dots , g_n\in G_1\} $$ and $$t_G(n) = \# G_n.$$ The type of growth of $t_G$ does not depend on $G_1$, so we may write the following. {{beginthm|Definition}} The '''growth type''' $gr (G)$ of $G$ is defined as $[t_G]$ for any finite symmetric generating set $G_1$. If $G$ acts on a space $X$ and $x\in X$, then the '''growth type''' $gr (G,x)$ of $G$ at $x$ is defined in a similar way: $gr (G,x) = [t_x]$, where $$t_x(n) = \#\{ g(x);\ g\in G_n\}$$ for any fixed finite symmetric generating set $G_1$. {{endthm}} {{beginthm|Example}} A finite group has the growth type $[1]$ while the abelian group $\Bbb Z^d$ has the polynomial growth of degree $d$. Any free (non-abelian) group has the exponential growth $[e^n]$. {{endthm}} {{beginthm|Proposition}} For any finitely generated group $G$ and any normal subgroup $H$ of $G$ we have $gr (G/H)\preceq gr (G)\preceq [e^n].$ {{endthm}} {{beginthm|Proposition}} Any finitely generated abelian group of rank $d$ has the growth type $[n^d]$. \{{endthm}} {{beginthm|Proposition}} Any finitely generated nilpotent group is of polynomial type of growth. {{endthm}} ===Orbit growth in pseudogroups=== ; ===Expansion growth=== ; ==Geometric entropy== ; ==Invariant measures== ; ==Results on entropy== ; == References == {{#RefList:}} [[Category:Theory]]X, any group of transformations of $X$$X$ consists of maps defined globally on $X$$X$, mapping $X$$X$ bijectively onto itself and such that the composition of any two of them as well as the inverse of any of them belongs to the group. The same holds for a pseudogroup with this difference that the maps are not defined globally but on open subsets, so the domain of the composition is usually smaller than those of the maps being composed.

To make the above precise, let us take a topological space $X$$X$ and denote by Homeo$\, (X)$$\, (X)$ the family of all homeomorphisms between open subsets of $X$$X$. If $g\in$$g\in$ Homeo$\, (X)$$\, (X)$, then $D_g$$D_g$ is its domain and $R_g = g(D_g)$$R_g = g(D_g)$.

Definition 2.1. A subfamily $\Gamma$$\Gamma$ of Homeo$\, (X)$$\, (X)$ is said to be a pseudogroup if it is closed under composition, inversion, restriction to open subdomains and unions. More precisely, $\Gamma$$\Gamma$ should satisfy the following conditions:

(i) $g\circ h\in\Gamma$$g\circ h\in\Gamma$ whenever $g$$g$ and $h\in\Gamma$$h\in\Gamma$,

(ii) $g^{-1}\in\Gamma$$g^{-1}\in\Gamma$ whenever $g\in\Gamma$$g\in\Gamma$,

(iii) $g|U\in\Gamma$$g|U\in\Gamma$ whenever $g\in\Gamma$$g\in\Gamma$ and $U\subset D_g$$U\subset D_g$ is open,

(iv) if $g\in$$g\in$ Homeo$\, (X)$$\, (X)$, $\mathcal{U}$$\mathcal{U}$ is an open cover of $D_g$$D_g$ and $g|U\in\Gamma$$g|U\in\Gamma$ for any $U\in\mathcal{U}$$U\in\mathcal{U}$, then $g\in\Gamma$$g\in\Gamma$.

Moreover, we shall always assume that

(v] id$_X\in\Gamma$$_X\in\Gamma$ (or, equivalently, $\cup\{ D_g; g\in\Gamma\} = X$$\cup\{ D_g; g\in\Gamma\} = X$).

As examples, one may have (1) all the homeomorphisms between open sets of a topological space, (2) all the diffeomorhisms of a given class (say, $C^k$$C^k$, $k = 1, 2, \ldots, \infty, \omega$$k = 1, 2, \ldots, \infty, \omega$, between open sets of a manifold, (3) all the restrictions to open domains of elements of a given group $G$$G$ of homeomorphisms of a given topological space. (In the last case, we say that the pseudogroup is generated by $G$$G$.) Any set $A$$A$ of homeomorphisms bewteen open sets (with domains covering a space $X$$X$) generates ma pseudogroup $\Gamma (A)$$\Gamma (A)$ which is the smallest pseudogroup containing $A$$A$; precisely a homeomorphism $h:D_h\to R_h$$h:D_h\to R_h$ belongs to $\Gamma (A)$$\Gamma (A)$ if and only if for any point $x\in D_h$$x\in D_h$ there exist elements $h_1, \ldots, h_k\in A$$h_1, \ldots, h_k\in A$, exponents $\epsilon _1, \ldots, \epsilon _k\in\{ \pm 1\}$$\epsilon _1, \ldots, \epsilon _k\in\{ \pm 1\}$ and a neighbourhood $V$$V$ of $x$$x$ such that $h = h_1^{\epsilon _1}\circ\ldots\circ h_k^{\epsilon _k}$$h = h_1^{\epsilon _1}\circ\ldots\circ h_k^{\epsilon _k}$ on $V$$V$. If $A$$A$ is finite, $\Gamma (A)$$\Gamma (A)$ is said to be finitely generated.

3 Holonomy pesudogroups

Definition 3.1. A foliated atlas $\mathcal{A}$$\mathcal{A}$ on a foliated manifold $(M, \mathcal{F})$$(M, \mathcal{F})$ is said to be nice (also, nice is the

covering of

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$M$ by the domains $D_\phi$$D_\phi$ of the charts $\phi\in\mathcal{A}$$\phi\in\mathcal{A}$) if

(i) the covering $\{ D_\phi ; \phi\in\mathcal{A}\}$$\{ D_\phi ; \phi\in\mathcal{A}\}$ is locally finite,

(ii) for any $\phi\in\mathcal{A}$$\phi\in\mathcal{A}$, $R_\phi = \phi (D_\phi )\subset\Bbb R^n$$R_\phi = \phi (D_\phi )\subset\Bbb R^n$ is an open cube,

(iii) if $\phi$$\phi$ and $\psi\in\mathcal{A}$$\psi\in\mathcal{A}$, and $D_\phi\cap D_\psi\ne\emptyset$$D_\phi\cap D_\psi\ne\emptyset$, then there exists a foliated chart chart $\chi$$\chi$ and such that $R_\chi$$R_\chi$ is an open cube, $D_\chi$$D_\chi$ contains the closure of $D_\phi\cup D_\psi$$D_\phi\cup D_\psi$ and $\phi = \chi |D_\phi$$\phi = \chi |D_\phi$.

Since manifolds are supposed to be paracompact here, they are separable and hence nice coverings are denumerable. Nice coverings on compact manifolds are finite. On arbitrary foliated manfiolds, nice coverings do exist.

Given a nice covering $\mathcal{U}$$\mathcal{U}$ of a foliated manifold $(M, \mathcal{F})$$(M, \mathcal{F})$. For any $U\in\mathcal{U}$$U\in\mathcal{U}$, let $T_U$$T_U$ be the space of the plaques (i.e., connected components of intersections $U\cap L$$U\cap L$. $L$$L$ being a leaf of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$) of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ contained in $U$$U$. Equip $T_U = U/(\mathcal{F}|U)$$T_U = U/(\mathcal{F}|U)$ with the quotient topology: two points of $U$$U$ are equivalent iff they belong to the same plaque. $T_U$$T_U$ is homeomorphic ($C^r$$C^r$-diffeomorphic when $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ is $C^r$$C^r$-differentiable and $r\ge 1$$r\ge 1$) to an open cube $Q\subset\Bbb R^q$$Q\subset\Bbb R^q$ ($q = \text{codim}\, \mathcal{F}$$q = \text{codim}\, \mathcal{F}$) via the map $\phi''$$\phi''$, where $\phi = (\phi ', \phi ''):U\to\Bbb R^p\times\Bbb R^q$$\phi = (\phi ', \phi ''):U\to\Bbb R^p\times\Bbb R^q$ is a foliated chart on $U$$U$. The disjoint union

$\displaystyle T = \sqcup\{T_U; U\in\mathcal{U}\}$ $$\displaystyle T = \sqcup\{T_U; U\in\mathcal{U}\}$$

is called a complete transversal for $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$. Transversality refers to the fact that, if $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ is differentiable of class $C^r$$C^r$, $r > 0$$r > 0$, each of the spaces $T_U$$T_U$ can be mapped homeomorphically onto a $C^r$$C^r$-submanifold $T_U'\subset U$$T_U'\subset U$ transverse to $U$$U$: if $x\in T_U'$$x\in T_U'$ and $L$$L$ is the leaf of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ passing through $x$$x$, then

$\displaystyle T_xM = T_xT_U'\oplus T_xL.$ $$\displaystyle T_xM = T_xT_U'\oplus T_xL.$$

Completeness of $T$$T$ means that every leaf of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$ intersects at least one of the submanifolds $T_U'$$T_U'$.

Definition 3.2. Given a nice covering $\mathcal{U}$$\mathcal{U}$ of a foliated manifold $(M,\mathcal{F})$$(M,\mathcal{F})$ and two sets $U$$U$ and $V\in\mathcal{U}$$V\in\mathcal{U}$ such that $U\cap V\ne\emptyset$$U\cap V\ne\emptyset$ the holonomy map $h_{VU}: D_{VU}\to T_V$$h_{VU}: D_{VU}\to T_V$, $D_{VU}$$D_{VU}$ being the open subset of $T_U$$T_U$ which consists of all the plaques $P$$P$ of $U$$U$ for which $P\cap V\ne\emptyset$$P\cap V\ne\emptyset$, is defined in the following way:

$\displaystyle h_{VU}(P) = P'\ \Leftrightarrow\ \text{the plaques}\ P\subset U\ \text{and}\ P'\subset V\ \text{intersect}.$ $$\displaystyle h_{VU}(P) = P'\ \Leftrightarrow\ \text{the plaques}\ P\subset U\ \text{and}\ P'\subset V\ \text{intersect}.$$

All the maps $h_{UV}$$h_{UV}$ ($U, V\in\mathcal{U}$$U, V\in\mathcal{U}$) generate a pseudogroup $\mathcal{H}$$\mathcal{H}$ on $T$$T$. $\mathcal{H}$$\mathcal{H}$ is called the holonomy pseudogroup of $\mathcal{F}$$\mathcal{F}$.

Chain of plaques

This means that any element of $\mathcal{H}$$\mathcal{H}$ assigns to a plaque $P$$P$ the end plaque $P'$$P'$ of a chain (that is a sequence of plaques such that any two consequtive plaques intersect) which oroginates at $P$$P$.

Certainly, holonomy pseudogroups of arbitrary compact foliated manifolds are finitely generated. For example, gluing together two 2-dimensional Reeb foliations (see Foliations#Reeb Foliations) on $D^2\times S^1$$D^2\times S^1$ one gets a foliation of the 3-dimensional sphere $S^3$$S^3$ for which any arc $T$$T$ intersecting the unique toral leaf $T^2$$T^2$ is a complete transversal; $T$$T$ can be identified with a segment $(-\epsilon, \epsilon)$$(-\epsilon, \epsilon)$ ($\epsilon > 0$$\epsilon > 0$), the point of intersection $T\cap T^2$$T\cap T^2$ with the number $0$$0$, while the holonomy group with the one on our segment generated by two maps $h_+, h_- :T\to T$$h_+, h_- :T\to T$ such that $h_+|[0, \epsilon ) = \id$$h_+|[0, \epsilon ) = \id$, $h_-|(-\epsilon , 0] = \id$$h_-|(-\epsilon , 0] = \id$, $h_+|(-\epsilon , 0]$$h_+|(-\epsilon , 0]$ snd $h_-|[0, \epsilon)$$h_-|[0, \epsilon)$ contract their domains towards $0$$0$.

4 Growth

Let us begin with two non-decreasing sequences $(a_n)$$(a_n)$ and $(b_n)$$(b_n)$ of non-negative numbers. We shall say that $(a_n)$$(a_n)$ "grows slower" that $(b_n)$$(b_n)$ ($(a_n)\preceq (b_n)$$(a_n)\preceq (b_n)$) whenever there exist positive constants $a$$a$ and $c$$c$ such that the inequalities

$\displaystyle a_n\le a\cdot b_{cn}$ $$\displaystyle a_n\le a\cdot b_{cn}$$

hold for all $n\in\mathbb N$$n\in\mathbb N$. We say that types of growth of our sequences $(a_n)$$(a_n)$ and $(b_n)$$(b_n)$ are the same whenever

$\displaystyle (a_n)\preceq (b_n)\preceq (a_n).$ $$\displaystyle (a_n)\preceq (b_n)\preceq (a_n).$$

Let now $\mathcal{T}$$\mathcal{T}$ be the set of non-negative increasing functions defined on $\Bbb N$$\Bbb N$:

$\displaystyle \mathcal{T} = \{ t:\Bbb N\to [0,\infty ); t(n)\le t(n+1)\ \text{for all}\ n\in\Bbb N\} ,$ $$\displaystyle \mathcal{T} = \{ t:\Bbb N\to [0,\infty ); t(n)\le t(n+1)\ \text{for all}\ n\in\Bbb N\} ,$$

and $\hat{\mathcal{T}}$$\hat{\mathcal{T}}$ the set of increasing sequences with entries in $\mathcal{T}$$\mathcal{T}$:

$\displaystyle \hat{\mathcal{T}} = \{ (t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}; t_j\in\mathcal{T}\ \text{and}\ t_j(n)\le t_{j+1}(n)\ \text{for all}\ j\ \text{and}\ n\in\Bbb N\} .$ $$\displaystyle \hat{\mathcal{T}} = \{ (t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}; t_j\in\mathcal{T}\ \text{and}\ t_j(n)\le t_{j+1}(n)\ \text{for all}\ j\ \text{and}\ n\in\Bbb N\} .$$

Elements $t$$t$ of $\mathcal{T}$$\mathcal{T}$ can be identified with sequences $(t,t,\dots )$$(t,t,\dots )$, so $\mathcal{T}$$\mathcal{T}$ can be considered as a subset of $\hat{\mathcal{T}}$$\hat{\mathcal{T}}$.

A preorder $\preceq$$\preceq$ defined by the condition:

(*) $(t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}\preceq (\tau_k)_{k\in\Bbb N}$$(t_j)_{j\in\Bbb N}\preceq (\tau_k)_{k\in\Bbb N}$ if and only if there exists $b\in\Bbb N$$b\in\Bbb N$ such that for all $j\in\Bbb N$$j\in\Bbb N$ the inequalities $t_j(n)\le a\tau_k (bn), \quad n\in\Bbb N,$$t_j(n)\le a\tau_k (bn), \quad n\in\Bbb N,$

induces an equivalence relation $\simeq$$\simeq$ in $\hat{\mathcal{T}}$$\hat{\mathcal{T}}$:

$\displaystyle (t_j)\simeq (\tau_k)\ \text{if and only if}\ (t_j)\preceq (\tau_k)\ \text{and}\ (\tau_k)\preceq (t_j).$ $$\displaystyle (t_j)\simeq (\tau_k)\ \text{if and only if}\ (t_j)\preceq (\tau_k)\ \text{and}\ (\tau_k)\preceq (t_j).$$

In particular, if $t$$t$ and $\tau\in\mathcal{T}$$\tau\in\mathcal{T}$, then

$\displaystyle t\preceq\tau\Leftrightarrow t(n)\le a\tau (bn)$ $$\displaystyle t\preceq\tau\Leftrightarrow t(n)\le a\tau (bn)$$

and

$\displaystyle t\simeq\tau\Leftrightarrow a^{-1}\tau ([n/b] )\le t(n)\le a\tau (bn)$ $$\displaystyle t\simeq\tau\Leftrightarrow a^{-1}\tau ([n/b] )\le t(n)\le a\tau (bn)$$

for all $n\in\Bbb N$$n\in\Bbb N$ and some $a,b\in\Bbb N$$a,b\in\Bbb N$. (Here, $[x]$$[x]$ is the largest integer which does not exceed $x$$x$, $x\in\Bbb R$$x\in\Bbb R$.)

Definition 4.1. Elements of the quotient $\hat{\mathcal{E}} = \hat{\mathcal{T}}/\simeq$$\hat{\mathcal{E}} = \hat{\mathcal{T}}/\simeq$ are called growth types. The growth type of $(t_j)\in\hat{\mathcal{T}}$$(t_j)\in\hat{\mathcal{T}}$ (resp., of $t\in\mathcal{T}$$t\in\mathcal{T}$) is denoted by $[(t_j)]$$[(t_j)]$ (resp., by $[t]$$[t]$). Also, we let $\mathcal{E} = \{ [t];\, t\in\mathcal{T}\}$$\mathcal{E} = \{ [t];\, t\in\mathcal{T}\}$. $\mathcal{E}$$\mathcal{E}$ is the set of growth types of monotone functions (in the sense of [Hector&Hirsch1981]). The preorder $\preceq$$\preceq$ induces a partial order (denoted again by $\preceq$$\preceq$) in $\hat{\mathcal{E}}$$\hat{\mathcal{E}}$.

Example 4.2. $[0]\preceq [1]\preceq [\log n]\preceq [n]\preceq [n^2]\preceq\dots\preceq [(1, n, n^2, \dots )]\preceq [2^n]\preceq [(1, 2^n, 3^n,\dots )]$$[0]\preceq [1]\preceq [\log n]\preceq [n]\preceq [n^2]\preceq\dots\preceq [(1, n, n^2, \dots )]\preceq [2^n]\preceq [(1, 2^n, 3^n,\dots )]$ and all the growth types listed above are different. The growth type of any polynomial of degree $d\ge 0$$d\ge 0$ is equal to $[n^d]$$[n^d]$ and is called polynomial (of degree $d$$d$). $[a^n] = [e^n]$$[a^n] = [e^n]$ for any $a > 1$$a > 1$ and this growth type is called exponential.

4.1 Growth in groups

For most of results listed here we refer to [Hector&Hirsch1981].

Let $G$$G$ be a finitely generated group and $G_1$$G_1$ a finite {\it symmetric} (i.e. such that $e\in G_1$$e\in G_1$ and $G_1^{-1} = \{ g^{-1};\, g\in G_1\}\subset G_1$$G_1^{-1} = \{ g^{-1};\, g\in G_1\}\subset G_1$) set generating it. For any $n\in\Bbb N$$n\in\Bbb N$ let

$\displaystyle G_n = \{ g_1\cdot\dots\cdot g_n;\ g_1,\dots , g_n\in G_1\}$ $$\displaystyle G_n = \{ g_1\cdot\dots\cdot g_n;\ g_1,\dots , g_n\in G_1\}$$

and

$\displaystyle t_G(n) = \# G_n.$ $$\displaystyle t_G(n) = \# G_n.$$

The type of growth of $t_G$$t_G$ does not depend on $G_1$$G_1$, so we may write the following.

Definition 4.3. The growth type $gr (G)$$gr (G)$ of $G$$G$ is defined as $[t_G]$$[t_G]$ for any finite symmetric generating set $G_1$$G_1$. If $G$$G$ acts on a space $X$$X$ and $x\in X$$x\in X$, then the growth type $gr (G,x)$$gr (G,x)$ of $G$$G$ at $x$$x$ is defined in a similar way: $gr (G,x) = [t_x]$$gr (G,x) = [t_x]$, where

$\displaystyle t_x(n) = \#\{ g(x);\ g\in G_n\}$ $$\displaystyle t_x(n) = \#\{ g(x);\ g\in G_n\}$$

for any fixed finite symmetric generating set $G_1$$G_1$.

Example 4.4. A finite group has the growth type $[1]$$[1]$ while the abelian group $\Bbb Z^d$$\Bbb Z^d$ has the polynomial growth of degree $d$$d$. Any free (non-abelian) group has the exponential growth $[e^n]$$[e^n]$.

Proposition 4.5. For any finitely generated group $G$$G$ and any normal subgroup $H$$H$ of $G$$G$ we have $gr (G/H)\preceq gr (G)\preceq [e^n].$$gr (G/H)\preceq gr (G)\preceq [e^n].$

Proposition 4.6. Any finitely generated abelian group of rank $d$$d$ has the growth type $[n^d]$$[n^d]$.

\

Proposition 4.7. Any finitely generated nilpotent group is of polynomial type of growth.

8 References

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